VIRUS
SOAL PILIHAN GANDA !!!
1.Virus merupakan transisi antara benda mati dan makhluk hidup di katakan benda mati karena….
a.Virus memiliki bentuk tetap
b.Dalam tubuh virus terdapat AND
c.Memiliki kapsid dari protein
d.Virus dapat di kristalkan
e.Virus bersifat racun
2.Virus di anggap sebagai makhluk hidup karena….
a.tubuhnya mengandung nukleat yang di lapisi protein
b.dapat menyerang bakteri
c.dapat menyebabkan penyakit seperti AIDS
d.dapat memperbanyak diri dalam sel hidup
e.dapat melewati saringan bakteri
3.Virus memperbanyak diri dengan cara…
a.Amitosis
b.Mitosis
c.Konjugasi dengan virus lain
d.Menginfeksi makhluk lain
e.Pembelahan biner
4.Salah satu sifat dari virus adalah…
a.Inti sel eukariotik
b.Inti sel prokariotik
c.Sel berbentuk batang
d.Tidak memiliki protoplasma
e.Sel berbentuk bola
5.Virus yang berkembangbiak atau berdaur hidup pada sel bakteri Escherichia coli adalah….
a.HIV
b.Bakteriofage
c.Cacar
d.Influenza
e.Rabies
6.Virus bakteriofage mempunyai bentuk…
a.Bola
b.Segi empat
c.Jarum
d.Batang
e.Bentuk T
7..Penyakit yang menyerang jaringan pengangkut pada batang tanaman jeruk adalah…
a.Citrus vein phloem degeneration
b. herpes simpleks
c. mieloma
d. penyakit kaki dan mulut
e. yellow fever
8.Myxovirus adalah virus yang bahan genetiknya berupa…
a.DNA atau RNA
b.DNA dan RNA
c.Polisakarida, lemak, dan protein
d.DNA, polisakarida, dan lemak
e.DNA, lemak, protein, polisakarida
9.Untuk membiakkan virus, kultur yang paling sesuai adalah…
a.Embrio ayam hidup
b.kaldu steril
c.medium agar
d.embrio tikus
e.garam fisiologi yang steril
10.Jenis virus di bawah ini dpat mengakibatkan kanker pada sel vertebrata, kecuali…
a.papovavirius
b.adenovirus
c.herpes
d.rous sarcoma virus
e.HIV
11. Penyakit-penyakit dibawah ini disebabkan oleh virus adalah……..
a.cacar; HIV, influenza, TBC
b.cacar, HIV, demam berdarah; poliornilitas
c.cacar, HIV demam berdarah,rabies,morbili
d.cacar,pneumonia,rabies morbili
e.cacar, hepatitis, kanker, siplis
12. vaksinasi dapat diberikan peroral, misalnya vaksin untuk mencegah………..
a.Paratifus
b.TBC
c.Polio
d.Campak
e.Cacar
13.Untuk mencegah serangan penyakit karena virus, biasa dilakukan karena vaksinasi diberikan pada orang yang……..
a.Sembuh dari sakit
b.Sedang sakit keras
c.Mempunyai gejala sakit
d.Sehat dan terjadi wabah
e.Sedang tertular penyakit
14.Pakar biologi yang pertama kali menemukan virus adalah……….
a.Dimitri Ivanovsky dan L. Pasteur
b.Dimitri Ivanovsky dan Adolf Meyer
c.Dimitri Ivanovsky dan Beyerinck
d.Bayerinck dan Adolf Meyer
e.Adolf dan Yonas Salk
15.CVPD adalah virus pada tanaman jeruk. Bagian tanaman yang dirusak atau diserang ialah……….
a.Pembuluh tapis batang
b.Pembuluh kayu batang
c.Akar tanaman
d.Daun muda tanaman
e.Buah sehingga tak berair
16.Ahli biologi yang menemukan fakta bahwa penyebab bintik kuning pada tanaman tembakau bukanlah bakteri adalah………….
a.Edward Jenner
b.Beijerinck
c.Ivanovsky
d.Louis Pasteur
e.Stanley Miller
17.Medium yang paling cocok untuk menumbuhkan suatu virus adalah………
a.Ekstrak daging yang dididihkan lalu disaring
b.Telur ayam yang sudah busuk
c.Bangkai yang sudah lama
a.Embrio burung yang masih hidup
b.Ekstrak kentang yang dicampur dengan vitamin dan mineral
18.Dari kelompok penyakit ini, yang disebabkan oleh virus adalah………..
a.Cacar, trakom, tifus, influenza
b.Influenza, cacar, rabies, polio
c.Influenza, kolera, trakom, campak
d.Cacar, rabies, demam berdarah, TBC
e.Campak, radang paru-paru, polio, cacar
19.Tubuh virus T terdiri atas protein dan asam deoksiribonukleat ( DNA ). Kemampuan berbiak dalam sel inang ditentukan oleh………
Ukuran tubuhnya yang sangat kecil
a.Persediaan zat makanan dalam tubuh virus itu
b.Bagian protein dan DNA
c.Bagian protein
d.Bagian DNA
e.Bagian dari DNA dan RNA
20. Bakteriofag, virus yang hidup di dalam sel bakteri Escherichia coli, mempunyai bentuk………….
a.Huruf S
b.Huruf T
c.Batang
d.Kotak
e.Bola
21.Virus belum dapat dikelompokkan sebagai hewan atau tumbuhan. Ciri makhluk hidup yang dimiliki virus adalah…………
a.Dapat dikristalkan
b.Berbentuk bola
c.Melakukan gerak
d.Menyebabkan penyakit
e.Melakukan reproduksi
22.Jenis-jenis penyakit pada tumbuhan yang disebabkan oleh virus adalah……….
a.Penyakit rebah semai
b.Newcastle disease
c.Tungro
d.Penyakit karat
e.Klorosis
23. Newcastle disease merupakan penyakit pada ternak jenis……….
a.Babi
b.Kuda
c.Ayam
d.Kerbau
e.Anjing
24. Escherichia coli adalah bakteri yang dapat diserang oleh…………
a.Bakteriofag
b.Polioma
c.Retrovirus
d.Adenovirus
e.Rhabdovirus
25.Kapsid virus tersusun dari………….
a.RNA
b.Protein
c.DNA
d.Lemak
e.Karbohidrat
26.Tujuan virus mengambil alih fungsi DNA inang adalah…………
a.Menghancurkan sel inangnya
b.Untuk melakukan sintesis protein dan membuat virus-virus baru
c.Untuk pembentukan enzim sel inang
d.Untuk persiapan pembelahan sel bagi inangnya
e.Untuk perbanyakan sel inang
27.Virus tidak dianggap sebuah sel karena virus…………
a.Tidak memiliki membrane inti ( prokariotik )
b.Tidak dapat melakukan reproduksi
c.Cara hidupnya obligat parasit
d.Tidak memiliki sitoplasma dan dapat dikristalkan
e.Tidak memiliki dinding sel
28.Sifat-sifat yang bukan merupakan cirri virus adalah………..
a.Memiliki DNA saja atau RNA saja
b.Tidak memiliki inti, sitoplasma, maupun membrane plasma
c.Memerlukan materi anorganik saja untuk berkembang biak
d.Dapat menjadi aktif dalam tubuh organisme hidup
e.Bentuk dan ukurannya bervariasi
29.Vaksin yang biasa diberikan secara oral adalah vaksin untuk mencegah penyakit…….
a.Cacar
b.Rabies
c.Polio
d.Demam berdarah
e.trakom
30.Vaksin diperoleh dengan cara berikut ini, kecuali………
a.Melemahkan jenis pathogen tertentu
b.Diproduksi alami oleh tubuh
c.Melemahkan virus pathogen
d.Melalui rekayasa genetika
e.Mematikan virus dengan bahan kimia
Rabu, 21 Januari 2009
Makalah Kependidikan
BAB I
PENDAHULUAN
1.1. Latar Belakang Masalah
Pendidikan adalah usaha sadar dan terencana untuk mewujudkan suasana belajar dan proses pembelajaran agar peserta didik secara aktif mengembangkn potensi dirinya untuk memiliki kekuatan spiritual keagamaan, pengabdian diri, kepribadian, kecerdasan, akhlak mulia, serta keterampilan yang diperlukan dirinya, bangsa dan negara. (UU Sistem Pendidikan Nasional No.20 Thn 2003).
Dalam konteks pendidikan formal, kegiatan belajar mengajar merupakan kegiatan yang pokok. Kegiatan belajar mengajar merupakan proses interaksi antara guru dan siswa untuk mencapai tujuan pengajaran.
Untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, guru merupakan faktor dominan dan paling bertanggung jawab atas terselenggaranya proses belajar mengajar yang efektif. Oleh karena itu, guru dalam mengajarkan suatu bahan pelajaran memerlukan pengorganisasian dan semua komponen-komponen behan mengajar. Menurut Syaiful Bahri Djamarah dan Aswan Zain mengemukakan komponen-komponen belajar mengajar sebagai berikut:
1. Tujuan
2. Bahan pelajaran
3. Kegiatan belajar mengajar
4. Metode
5. Alat
6. Sumber pelajaran
7. Evaluasi.
Salah satu komponen yang penting dalam pelajaran adalah metode mengajar, yang merupakan suatu cara untuk mencapai tujuan pengajaran, yang merupakan suatu cara untuk mencapai tujuan pengajaran. Seperti yang dikemukakan oleh Abu ahmadi dan Tri prasetya (2005 : 52) bahwa:
“Metode mengajar adalah suatu pengetahuan tentang cara-cara mengajar dipergunakan oleh seoraug guru atau instruktur”
Pemilihan terhadap metode yang akan digunakan merupakan hal yang sangat penting dalam usaha meningkatkan efektivitas proses belajar mengajar. Disamping itu pemilihan dan penggunaan metode mengajar dapat mengefektifkan kerja guru.
Dalam menggunakan atau memilih suatu metode tersebut, ada beberapa faktor yang harus dipertimbangkan. Hak ini menunjukkan bahwa tidak ada suatu metode pun yang efektif untuk setiap bahan yang akan disajikan.
Pemahaman dan penguasaan terhadap metode-metode belajar mengajar adalah sangat penting dan merupakan salah satu tuntutan bagi kompetensi seorang guru.
Atas uaraian diatas penulis akan menguraikan masalah “Peranan Pemilihan Metode Mengajar dalam Meningkatkau Efektifitas Belajar Mengajar”.
1.2. Identifikasi dan Pembatasan Masalah
Berdasarkan latar belakarig diatas maka identifikasi masalahnya sebagai berikut:
1. Bagaimana mengukur efektifitas belajar mengajar.
2. Bagaimana teknik pemilihan metode mengajar yang efektif.
Berdasarkan dengan hal tersebut di atas, agar tidak terjadi kesimpangsiuran dan untuk mempertegas bahasan, maka penulis membatasi pemasalahan pada faktor-faktor yang perlu dipertimbangkan dalam pemilihan metode mengajar.
1.3. Perumusan Masalah
Berdasarkan identifi.kasi dan pembatasan masalah di atas, maka penulis merumuskan masalahnya sebagai berikut:
1. Apa sajajenis-jenis metode mengajar yang bisa dikembangkan oleh
guru?
2. Apakah faktor-faktor yang perlu dipertimbangkan dalam pemilihan
metode mengajar?
3. Bagaimana mengukur efektifitas belajar mengajar?
4. Bagaimana tekhnik pemilihan metode mengajar?
BAB II
LANDASAN TEORI
2.1. Pengertian Belajar
Pengertian belajar menurut Oemar Hamalik yaitu “Belajar adalah Modifikasi atau memperteguh kelakuan melalui pengalaman (learning is defined as the modficationor strengthening of behavior through experiencing). Belajar merupakan suatu proses, suatu kegiatan dan bukan suatu hasil atau tujuan. Belajar bukan saja mengingat, akan tetapi lebih luas dari itu, yakni mengalami. Hasil belajar bukan suatu penguasaan hasil latihan melainkan pengubahan kelakuan”.
2.2. Arti dan Macam Metode Mengajar
Metode mengajar terdiri dan dua kata yaitu metode dan mengajar yang masing-masing mempunyai arti tersendiri. Menurut E. Kusmana (1985 : 7) memberikan pengertian metode sebagai berikut:
“Metode adalah seperangkat teknik yang mendukung sesuatu pola yang digunakan untuk mencapai suatu tujuan”.
Sedangkan yang dimaksud dengan mengajar ialah:
“Mengajar itu sebagai segala upaya yang ditempuh pengajar (guru) untuk membina, membantu, memotivasi, mendorong dan memberi berbagai kemudahan kepada subjek ajar (siswa) untuk mencapai tujuan belajarnya dengan efektif dan efisien”.
Dan pengertian tersebut dapat disimpulkan, bahwa yang dimaksud dengan metode mengajar adalah suatu teknik atnu cara yang harus ditempuh oleh guru dalam menyampaikan pelajaran kepada siswa sehingga dapat mencapai tujuan yang ditetapkan.
Adapun macam-macam metode mengajar Menurut Syaiful bahri Djamarah dan Aswan Zain yang pada umumnya dipakai dalam proses belajar mengajar:
1. Metode Proyek
2. Metode Eksperimen
3. Metode Tugas dan Resitasi
4. Metode Diskusi
5. Metode Sosiodrama
6. Metode Demonstrasi
7. Metode Problem Solving
8. Metode Karyawisata
9. Metode Tanya Jawab
10. Metode Latihan
11. Metode Ceramah
2.3. Pengertian Belajar Mengajar
Definisi belajar yang dikemukakan oleh Oemar hamalik (2001 : 27) dalam bukunya “Proses Belajar Mengajar” adalah sebagai berikut:
“Belajar merupakn suatu proses, suatu kegiatan dan bukan suatu hasil atau tujuan. Belajar bukan hanya mengingat, akan tetapi lebih luas dari, yakni mengalami”
Dari pengertian tersebut di atas dapat disimpulkan bahwa belajar adalah proses perubahan prilaku atau pribadi seseorang berdasarkan praktek atau pengalaman tertentu.
Sedangkan defmisi dan mengajar menurut Oemar hamalik disadur oleh (Nasution 1935:5) adalah sebagai berikut:
“Mengajar adalah aktivitas guru dalam mengorganisasikan lingkungan dan mendekatkannya kepada anak didik sehingga terjadi proses belajar”
(Oemar hamalik 2001:39)
Dan pengertian tersebut di atas, mengajar tidak hanya aktivitas guru untuk mengorganisasikan lingkungan dan mendekatkannya kepada anak didik melainkan mengajar dapat memberi rangsangan, bimbingan serta motivasi kepada siswa agar terjadi proses belajar mengajar.
Kegiatan belajar mengajar merupakan suatu kesatuan antara unsur-unsur yang saling berkaitan dan saling melengkapi antara unsur yang satu dengan yang lainnya. Menurut Moh.Uzer Usman (1995:4) adalah sebagai berikut:
“Proses belajar mengajar merupakan suatu proses yang mengandung serangkaian perbuatan guru dan siswa atas dasar hubungan timbal balik yang berlangsung dalam situasi edukatif untuk mencapai tujuan tertentu”.
Dan definisi tersebut akan terjadi prilaku belajar pada pihak siswa dan prilaku mengajar pada pihak guru, kedua pihak barperan aktif dalam kerangka kerja dengan mengunakan cara dan kerangka berfikir.
Secara sistematis proses belajar mengajar merupakan kesatuan antara unsur-unsur yang saling berinteraksi. Unsur-unsur tersebut menurut Syaiful Bahri Djamarah (2002:123) adalah:
1. Tujuan.
2. Guru.
3. Anak didik.
4. Kegiatan pengajaran.
5. Bahan dan Alat evaluasi.
6. Suasana Evaluasi.
BAB III
PEMBAHASAN
3.1. Jenis-jenis Metode Mengajar
3.1.1. Metode Problem Solving
Metode Problem Solving (metode pemecahan masalah) bukan hanya sekedar metode mengajar, tetapi juga merupakan suatu metode berpikir, sebab dalam problem solving dapat mengunakan metode-metode lainnya yang dimulai dengan mencari data sampai kepada menarik kesimpulan.
Beberapa kelebihan metode problem solving antara lain:
a. Metode ini dapat membuat pendidikan di sekolah menjadi lebih relevan dengan kehidupan, khususnya dengan dunia kerja.
b. Proses belajar mengajar melalui pemecahan masalah dapat membiasakan para siswa menghadapi dan memecahkan masalah secara terampil, apabila menghadapi permasalahan di dalam kehidupan dalam keluarga, masyarakat, dan berkerja kelak, suatu kemampuan yang sangat bermaknabagio kehidupan manusia.
c. Metode ini merangsang pergembangan kemampuan berfikir siswa secara kreatif dan menyeluruh, karena dalatri proses belajarnya, siswa banyak melakukan mental dengan menyoroti permasalahan dan berbagai segi dalam rangka mencari pemccahannya.
Sedangkan kekurangan metode problem solving antara iain:
a. Menentukan suatu masalah yang tingkat kesulitannya sesuai dengan tingkat berpikir siswa, tingkat sekolah dan kelasnya serta pengetahuan dan pengalaman yang telah dimiliki siswa, sangat memerlukan kemampuan d2n ketrampilan guru.
b. Proses belajar mengajar dengan menggunakan metode mi sering memerlukan waktu yang cukup banyak dan sening terpaksa mengambil waktu pelajaran lain.
c. Mengubah kebiasaan siswa belajar dengan mendengarkan dan menerma informasi dan guru menjadi belajar dengan banyak berfikir memecahkan
permasalahan sendiri atau kelompok yang kadang-kadang memerlukan berbagai sumber belajar, merupakan kesulitan tersendiri bagi siswa.
3.1.2. Metode tanya jawab
Metode tanya jawab adalah cara penyajian pelajar&i dalam bentuk pertanyaan yang hams di jawab, terutama dan guru kepada siswa, tetapi dapat pula dan siswa kepada guru.
Beberapa kelebihan metode tanyajawab
a. Pertanyaan dapat menarik dan meniusatkan perhatian siswa, sekalipun ketika itu siswa sedang ribut, yang mengantuk kembali tegar dan hilang kantuknya.
b. Merangsang siswa untuk melatih dan mengembangkan daya pikir, termasuk daya ingat.
c. Mengembangkan keberanian dan keterampilan dalam menjawab dan mengemukakan pendapat.
Sedangkan kekurangan tanyajawab antara lain:
a. Siswa merasa takut, apalagi bila guru kurang dapat mendorong siswa untuk berani, Dengan menciptakan suasaiia yang tidak tegang, melainkan akrab.
b. Tidak mudah membuat pertanyaan yang sesuai dengan tingkat berfikir dan mudah dipahami siswa.
c. Waktu sering banyak terbuang, terutama apa bila siswa tidak dapat menjawab pertanyaan sampai dua atau tiga orang.
3.1.3. Metode latihan,
Metode latihan yang disebut juga metode training merupakan suatu cara mengajar yang baik untuk menanamkan kebiasaan-kebiasaan tertentu.
Beberapa kelebihan metode latihan
a. untuk memperoleh kecakapan motoris, seperti menulis, melafalkan huruf kata-kata atau kalimat, membuat alat-alat, menggunakan alat-alat (mesin permainan dan atletik), dan terampil menggunakan peralatan olah raga.
b. Untuk memperoleh kecakapan mental seperti dalam perkalian, menjumlah, pengurangan, pembagian, tanda-tanda (simbol), dan sebagainya.
c. Untuk memperoleh kecakapan dalam bentuk asosiasi yang di buat, seperti hubungan huruf-huruf dalam ejaan, penggunaan simbol, membaca peta dan sebagainya.
Sedangkan kelemahan metode latihan
a. Menghambat bakat dan inisiatif siswa, karena siswa lebih banyak dibawa kepada penyesuaian dan diarahkan jauh dan pengertian.
b. Menimbulkan penyesuaian secara statis kepada lingkungan.
c. Kadang-kadang latihan yang dilaksanakan secara berulang-ulang merupakan hal monoton, mudah membosankan.
3.1.4. Metode ceramah
Metode ceramah adalah metode yang boleh dikatakan metode tradisional, metode ini telah digunakan sejak dulu sebagai alat lisan komunikasi antara guru dan anak didik dalam proses belajar mengajar.
Beberapa kelebihan metode ceramah antara lain:
a. Guru mudah menguasai kelas.
b. Mudah mengorganisasikan tempat duduk/kelas
c. Dapat diikuti oleh jumlah siswa yang besar.
Sedangkan kekurangan metode ceramah antara lain:
a. Mudah menjadi verbalisme (pengertian kata-kata)
b. Bila selalu digunakan dan terlalu lama, membosankan.
Guru menyimpulkan bahwa siswa mengerti dan tertarik pada ceramahnya, ini sukar sekali.
3.2. Faktor-faktor yang Dipertimbangkan dalam Pemilihan Metode Mengajar.
Metode mengajar merupakan syarat mutlak yang harus disertakan dalam proses belajar mengajar, karena metode mengajar merupakan cara atau proses mencapai tujuan pengajaran yaitu tujuan yang diharapkan dapat dicapai oleh siswa dalam kegiatan belajar.
Setiap guru yang akan menyajikan materi pelajaran kepada anak didiknya, perlu memahami arti, peranan serta penggunaan metode mengajar, karena metode yang digunakan itu akan berpengaruh sekali terhadap berhasil tidaknya suatu tujuan yang akan dicapai tergantung pada penggunaan metode yang tepat.
Dari uraian di atas dikemukakan bahwa setiap metode memiliki karakteristik tersendiri, oleh karena itu perlu dipilih suatu atau beberapa metode yang sesuai. Jadi dalam pemilihan tersebut bukanlah salah satu metode yang digunakan secara permanen, tetapi bervariasi den metode yg tepat sehingga tercapai proses belajar mengajar yang efektif.
Faktor-faktor yang secara umum dijadikan dasar untuk memilih metode mengajar yang tepat bagi suatu proses belajar mengajar menurut E. kusmana (1985 :164-165) adalah:
1. Tujuan yang ingin dicapai.
2. Faktor siswa
3. Faktor guru.
4. Faktor dana dan fasilitas yang tersedia.
5. Faktor sifat dan materi yang hendak disajikan.
6. Faktor waktu yang tersedia bagi pelaksanaan proses belajar mengajar.
Mengenai faktor-faktor yang perlu dipertimbangkan dalam pemilihan metode mengajar adalah sebagai berikut:
1. Tujuan yang ingin dicapai.
Yang dimaksud dengan tujuan yang ingin dicapai ialah tujuan pengajaran. Tujuan pengajaran merupakan rumusan yang menggambarkan tentang perubhan tingkah laku apa yang akan diperoleh, siswa sebagai akibat dan pengajaran.
Dalam sistem pengajaran, tujuan harus dapat memberikan gambaran yang jelas tentang bentuk tingkah laku yang diharapkan dapat dimiliki siswa, karena itu tujuan harus merupakan suatu rumusan yang bersifat sempit dan spesifik. Dalam menentukan tijuan yang spesifik,harus diperhatikan tiga unsur yaitu meliputi aspek kognitif, afektif dan aspek psikomotor.
Tujuan yang jelas dan spesifik akan memberikan pegangan dan petunjuk tentang metode mengajar. Hal ini sesuai dengan fungsi metode itu sendiri yaitu cara untuk mencapai tujuan. Dengan demikian jelaslah bahwa dalam pemilihan metode mengajar yang tepat untuk mencapai tujuan haruslah memperhatikan tujuan yang telah ditetapkan.
2. faktor siswa
Siswa sebagai subjk ajar yang sangat penting dalam proses belajar mengajar, setiap siswa mempunyai keragaman masing-masing. Hal ini yang harus
diperhatikan dalam faktor siswa diantaranya usia, latar belakang, potensi-potensinya, kemampuan dan motivasi. Hal tersebut perlu dipertimbangkan dalam pemilihan metode mengajar. Disamping itu jumlah siswa yang mengikuti proses belajar mengajar juga sangat besar pengaruhnya terhadap pemilihan metode mengajar.
3. Faktor guru
Dalam proses belajar mengajar, guru mempunyai tugas mendorong, membimbing, dan memberi fasilitas belajar bagi siswa untuk mencapai keberhasilan pengajaran.
Salah satu faktor untuk mencapai keberhasilan dalam proses belajar mengajar, guru hams dapat menerapkan suatu cara untuk tercapainya tujuan tersebut. Guru di tuntut untuk dapat menggunakan berbagai metode, baik secara tunggal maupun bervariasi, dengan berpedoman dengan tujuan yang akan dicapainya.
Setiap metode mengajar mempunyai kebaikan dan kelemahannya. Suatu metode yang baik bagi seorang guru, belum tentu baik untuk guru yang lain di dalam menyampaikan suatu materi pelajaran. Untuk menghasilkai metode yang efektif maka seong guru harus dapat memahami dan mengerti kebaikan dan kelemahan dan masing-masing tersebut.
Berdasarkan kemampuan guru dalam menggunakan dan memilih metode mengajar, maka hal ini dapat menunjang tercapainnya proses belajar mengajar yang efektif.
4. Faktor sifat materi yang akan diasampaikan
Isi proses belajar mengajar akan tercermin dalam bahan yang dipelajari oleh siswa. Hal ini akan berpengaruh terhadap metode mengajar yang akan dipilih, karena dengan mengetahui sifat materi pelajaran terlebih dahulu.
Menurut E Kusmana (1979:86) karakteristik bahan pelajaran dapat dikelompokan sebagai berikut:
“Materi pelajaran dapat dikelompokkan atas mata pelajaran Vokasional yaitu mata pelajaran yang membina kecakapan tertentu yang menjabat suatu jabatan dan mata pelajarannya yang bersifat non vokasional atau mata pelajaran yang membina pengetahuan umum”.
Dengan demikian jelaslah bahwa dalam memilih metode mengajar itu, haruslah melihat karakteristik dan bahan mata pelajaran tersebut. Karena metode yang digunakan untuk menyampaikan bahan pelajaran yang bersifat vokasinal akan berbeda dengn metode yang digunakan untuk pelajaran yang bersifat non vokasional.
5. Faktor dana dan fasilitas yang tersedia
Dalam menggunakan metode mengajar tertentu, seringkali masalah dana dan fasilitas merupakan masalah yang menjadi penentu penggunaannya. Tidak jarang karena dana tidak tersedia, sesuatu metode yang yang dianggap baik untuk menyajikan suatu materi tidak dapat digunakan. Yang termasuk ke dalam faktor ini antara lain: alat peraga, alat-alat praktek, buku-buku, perpustakaan serta biaya.
6. Faktor waktu yang tersedia bagi pelaksanaan proses belajar mengajar
Salah satu hambatan yang sering dialami dalam mengajar adalah faktor waktu, karena sering kali seorang guru tidak dapat mengendalikan waktu, sehingga terjadi bahan pelajaran sudah selesai, tetapi waktu masih panjang. Atau sebaliknya, waktu sudah habis tetapi bahan belum tuntas. Hal ini membawa pengaruh terhadap proses belajar mengajar.
Oleh karena itu dalam pemilihan metode belajar mengajar, faktor waktu harus diperhatikan. Agar faktor waktu dapat diatur dengan sebaik-baiknya, diperlukan pengendalian waktu yaitu dengan menyusun jadwal dan alokasi waktu. Dalam pengajaran, alokasi waktu berpedoman dengan tujuan. Berapa banyak tujuan yang akan dicapai, serta berapa lama suatu materi dapat dipelajari siswa, seoarang guru dat membuat perincian waktu yang telah ditetapkan didalam kurikulum, sehingga proses belajar mengajar dapat sesuai dengan waktu yang di rencanakan.
3.3. Mengukur Efektivitas Belajar Mengajar
Mengukur adalah membandingkan sesuatu dengan satu ukuran. Cara mengukur efektif tidaknya belajar mengajar adalah dengan mengadakan tes, baik itu tes tulis maupun lisan. Tes lisan dilakukan pada saat kegiatan belajar mengajar berlangsung. Ditinjau dari segi kegunaan untuk mengukur kemampuan siswa, maka dibedakan atas 3 macam test yaitu:
1. Tes Diagnostik
Adalah tes yang digunakan untuk mengetahui kelemahan-kelemahan siswa sehingga berdasarkan kelemahan-kelemahan tersebut dapat dilakukan pemberian perlakuan yang tepat.
2. Tes Formatif
Digunakan untuk mengetahui apakah siswa sudah menguasai bahan program secara menyeluruh. Tes ini diberikan pada akhir setiap program.
3. Tes Sumatif
Tes yang dilakukan setiap akhir semester yang berguna untuk menentukan nilai akhir dan kegiatan belajar mengajar.
3.4. Teknik Pemiihan Metode Mengajar
faktor-faktor yang di uraiakan diatas dapat membantu dalam memlih dan menetapkan metode mengajar yang paling tepat yang akan digunakan, sehingga keberhasilan proses belajar mengajar akan terwujud.
Metode-metode yang terdapat dalam kurikulum, bukanlah suatu yang baku yang harus dilaksanakan. Oleh karena itu, disaniping melaksanakan metode-metode yang terdapat dalam kurikulum dapat dipergunakan pula metode-metode lain yang mendukung metode-metode tersebut. Guru dituntut untuk memilih dan menggunakan suatu atau beberapa metode yang dipergunakannya dalam menyajikan materi pelajaian.
Adapun alasan penulis memilih metode secara bervariasi antara lain:
a. Di lihat dan karakteristiknya, bahwa setiap metode itu mempunyai kelebihan dan kelemahannya. Untuk menekan kelemahan-kelemahannya maka sebaiknya metode itu dipadukan.
b. Dilihat dari materi yang akan disajikan, ada yang cocok dengan menggunakan metode ceramah, metode latihan dan lainnya. Atau bisa dipadukan antara satu metode dengan metode lainnya.
c. Untuk menghilangkan kebosanan atau kejenuhan dalam diri siswa.
d. Untuk menumbuhkan minat belajar siswa.
Dalam pelaksanaannya metode-metode tersebut sudah direncanakan dalam satuan pelajanan yang merupakan rencana pengajaran yang akan dilaksanakan.
BAB IV
KESIMPULAN DAN REKOMENDASI
1.1. Kesimpulan
1. Metode mengajar mempunyai fungsi yang penting di dalam mencapai tujuan pengajaran, karena tanpa metode yang efektif tujuan pengajaran tidak akan berhasil dengan balk.
2. Dalam pemilihan metode mengajar perlu mempertimbangkan beberapa faktor antara lain faktor tujuan yang ingin dicapai, faktor siswa, faktor guru, faktor materi dan faktor dana dan fasilitas.
3. Setiap metode mengajar mempunyai karakteristik tersendiri yaitu berupa kelebihan dan kekurangan. Untuk menutupi kekurangan suatu metode maka metode tersebut harus digunakan secara terpadu dengan metode lainnya. Dengan demikian dalam kegiatan belajar mengajar akan terdapat bebarapa metode yang digunakan secara padu.
4. Pemilihan metode mengajar didasarkan atas kemampuan seorang Guru dalam menggunakan metode mengajar den sesuai dengan bahan yang diajarkan.
1.2. Rekomendasi
Mengingat semua mata pelajaran lebih menekankan aspek psikomotorik, maka guru dituntut untuk menyediakan waktunya untuk memeriksa tugas dan latihan yang diberikannya. Hal ini untuk mengetahui tingkat pemahaman siswa terhadap materi pelajaran yang di berikannya.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Ahmadi,Abu. H.Drsdan Prasetya,Tri,Joko.Drs,2005, Strategi Belajar Mengajar. Bandung:Pusaka setia.
Au, Mohamad,Drs., Guru Dalm Proses Belajar Mengajar, Sinar Baru, Bandung, 1983.
Djamarah Bahri Syaiful.,Drs dan Zain Usman.,Drs. Strategi Belajar Mengajar, Banjarmasin,Rineka Cipta l995.
Hamalik,Oemar. Dr. Prof,2001, Proses Belajar Mengajar. Bandung:Balai Pustaka
Nasution,S.Prof.Dr., Proses Belajar Mergajar,Asas strategi Metode, Jurusan Pendidikan Dunia Usaha. FPIPS IKIP Bandung,1985.
Usman Uzer. Moh. Drs, 1995, Menjadi Guru Proposional. Bandung Remaja Rosda karya
PENDAHULUAN
1.1. Latar Belakang Masalah
Pendidikan adalah usaha sadar dan terencana untuk mewujudkan suasana belajar dan proses pembelajaran agar peserta didik secara aktif mengembangkn potensi dirinya untuk memiliki kekuatan spiritual keagamaan, pengabdian diri, kepribadian, kecerdasan, akhlak mulia, serta keterampilan yang diperlukan dirinya, bangsa dan negara. (UU Sistem Pendidikan Nasional No.20 Thn 2003).
Dalam konteks pendidikan formal, kegiatan belajar mengajar merupakan kegiatan yang pokok. Kegiatan belajar mengajar merupakan proses interaksi antara guru dan siswa untuk mencapai tujuan pengajaran.
Untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, guru merupakan faktor dominan dan paling bertanggung jawab atas terselenggaranya proses belajar mengajar yang efektif. Oleh karena itu, guru dalam mengajarkan suatu bahan pelajaran memerlukan pengorganisasian dan semua komponen-komponen behan mengajar. Menurut Syaiful Bahri Djamarah dan Aswan Zain mengemukakan komponen-komponen belajar mengajar sebagai berikut:
1. Tujuan
2. Bahan pelajaran
3. Kegiatan belajar mengajar
4. Metode
5. Alat
6. Sumber pelajaran
7. Evaluasi.
Salah satu komponen yang penting dalam pelajaran adalah metode mengajar, yang merupakan suatu cara untuk mencapai tujuan pengajaran, yang merupakan suatu cara untuk mencapai tujuan pengajaran. Seperti yang dikemukakan oleh Abu ahmadi dan Tri prasetya (2005 : 52) bahwa:
“Metode mengajar adalah suatu pengetahuan tentang cara-cara mengajar dipergunakan oleh seoraug guru atau instruktur”
Pemilihan terhadap metode yang akan digunakan merupakan hal yang sangat penting dalam usaha meningkatkan efektivitas proses belajar mengajar. Disamping itu pemilihan dan penggunaan metode mengajar dapat mengefektifkan kerja guru.
Dalam menggunakan atau memilih suatu metode tersebut, ada beberapa faktor yang harus dipertimbangkan. Hak ini menunjukkan bahwa tidak ada suatu metode pun yang efektif untuk setiap bahan yang akan disajikan.
Pemahaman dan penguasaan terhadap metode-metode belajar mengajar adalah sangat penting dan merupakan salah satu tuntutan bagi kompetensi seorang guru.
Atas uaraian diatas penulis akan menguraikan masalah “Peranan Pemilihan Metode Mengajar dalam Meningkatkau Efektifitas Belajar Mengajar”.
1.2. Identifikasi dan Pembatasan Masalah
Berdasarkan latar belakarig diatas maka identifikasi masalahnya sebagai berikut:
1. Bagaimana mengukur efektifitas belajar mengajar.
2. Bagaimana teknik pemilihan metode mengajar yang efektif.
Berdasarkan dengan hal tersebut di atas, agar tidak terjadi kesimpangsiuran dan untuk mempertegas bahasan, maka penulis membatasi pemasalahan pada faktor-faktor yang perlu dipertimbangkan dalam pemilihan metode mengajar.
1.3. Perumusan Masalah
Berdasarkan identifi.kasi dan pembatasan masalah di atas, maka penulis merumuskan masalahnya sebagai berikut:
1. Apa sajajenis-jenis metode mengajar yang bisa dikembangkan oleh
guru?
2. Apakah faktor-faktor yang perlu dipertimbangkan dalam pemilihan
metode mengajar?
3. Bagaimana mengukur efektifitas belajar mengajar?
4. Bagaimana tekhnik pemilihan metode mengajar?
BAB II
LANDASAN TEORI
2.1. Pengertian Belajar
Pengertian belajar menurut Oemar Hamalik yaitu “Belajar adalah Modifikasi atau memperteguh kelakuan melalui pengalaman (learning is defined as the modficationor strengthening of behavior through experiencing). Belajar merupakan suatu proses, suatu kegiatan dan bukan suatu hasil atau tujuan. Belajar bukan saja mengingat, akan tetapi lebih luas dari itu, yakni mengalami. Hasil belajar bukan suatu penguasaan hasil latihan melainkan pengubahan kelakuan”.
2.2. Arti dan Macam Metode Mengajar
Metode mengajar terdiri dan dua kata yaitu metode dan mengajar yang masing-masing mempunyai arti tersendiri. Menurut E. Kusmana (1985 : 7) memberikan pengertian metode sebagai berikut:
“Metode adalah seperangkat teknik yang mendukung sesuatu pola yang digunakan untuk mencapai suatu tujuan”.
Sedangkan yang dimaksud dengan mengajar ialah:
“Mengajar itu sebagai segala upaya yang ditempuh pengajar (guru) untuk membina, membantu, memotivasi, mendorong dan memberi berbagai kemudahan kepada subjek ajar (siswa) untuk mencapai tujuan belajarnya dengan efektif dan efisien”.
Dan pengertian tersebut dapat disimpulkan, bahwa yang dimaksud dengan metode mengajar adalah suatu teknik atnu cara yang harus ditempuh oleh guru dalam menyampaikan pelajaran kepada siswa sehingga dapat mencapai tujuan yang ditetapkan.
Adapun macam-macam metode mengajar Menurut Syaiful bahri Djamarah dan Aswan Zain yang pada umumnya dipakai dalam proses belajar mengajar:
1. Metode Proyek
2. Metode Eksperimen
3. Metode Tugas dan Resitasi
4. Metode Diskusi
5. Metode Sosiodrama
6. Metode Demonstrasi
7. Metode Problem Solving
8. Metode Karyawisata
9. Metode Tanya Jawab
10. Metode Latihan
11. Metode Ceramah
2.3. Pengertian Belajar Mengajar
Definisi belajar yang dikemukakan oleh Oemar hamalik (2001 : 27) dalam bukunya “Proses Belajar Mengajar” adalah sebagai berikut:
“Belajar merupakn suatu proses, suatu kegiatan dan bukan suatu hasil atau tujuan. Belajar bukan hanya mengingat, akan tetapi lebih luas dari, yakni mengalami”
Dari pengertian tersebut di atas dapat disimpulkan bahwa belajar adalah proses perubahan prilaku atau pribadi seseorang berdasarkan praktek atau pengalaman tertentu.
Sedangkan defmisi dan mengajar menurut Oemar hamalik disadur oleh (Nasution 1935:5) adalah sebagai berikut:
“Mengajar adalah aktivitas guru dalam mengorganisasikan lingkungan dan mendekatkannya kepada anak didik sehingga terjadi proses belajar”
(Oemar hamalik 2001:39)
Dan pengertian tersebut di atas, mengajar tidak hanya aktivitas guru untuk mengorganisasikan lingkungan dan mendekatkannya kepada anak didik melainkan mengajar dapat memberi rangsangan, bimbingan serta motivasi kepada siswa agar terjadi proses belajar mengajar.
Kegiatan belajar mengajar merupakan suatu kesatuan antara unsur-unsur yang saling berkaitan dan saling melengkapi antara unsur yang satu dengan yang lainnya. Menurut Moh.Uzer Usman (1995:4) adalah sebagai berikut:
“Proses belajar mengajar merupakan suatu proses yang mengandung serangkaian perbuatan guru dan siswa atas dasar hubungan timbal balik yang berlangsung dalam situasi edukatif untuk mencapai tujuan tertentu”.
Dan definisi tersebut akan terjadi prilaku belajar pada pihak siswa dan prilaku mengajar pada pihak guru, kedua pihak barperan aktif dalam kerangka kerja dengan mengunakan cara dan kerangka berfikir.
Secara sistematis proses belajar mengajar merupakan kesatuan antara unsur-unsur yang saling berinteraksi. Unsur-unsur tersebut menurut Syaiful Bahri Djamarah (2002:123) adalah:
1. Tujuan.
2. Guru.
3. Anak didik.
4. Kegiatan pengajaran.
5. Bahan dan Alat evaluasi.
6. Suasana Evaluasi.
BAB III
PEMBAHASAN
3.1. Jenis-jenis Metode Mengajar
3.1.1. Metode Problem Solving
Metode Problem Solving (metode pemecahan masalah) bukan hanya sekedar metode mengajar, tetapi juga merupakan suatu metode berpikir, sebab dalam problem solving dapat mengunakan metode-metode lainnya yang dimulai dengan mencari data sampai kepada menarik kesimpulan.
Beberapa kelebihan metode problem solving antara lain:
a. Metode ini dapat membuat pendidikan di sekolah menjadi lebih relevan dengan kehidupan, khususnya dengan dunia kerja.
b. Proses belajar mengajar melalui pemecahan masalah dapat membiasakan para siswa menghadapi dan memecahkan masalah secara terampil, apabila menghadapi permasalahan di dalam kehidupan dalam keluarga, masyarakat, dan berkerja kelak, suatu kemampuan yang sangat bermaknabagio kehidupan manusia.
c. Metode ini merangsang pergembangan kemampuan berfikir siswa secara kreatif dan menyeluruh, karena dalatri proses belajarnya, siswa banyak melakukan mental dengan menyoroti permasalahan dan berbagai segi dalam rangka mencari pemccahannya.
Sedangkan kekurangan metode problem solving antara iain:
a. Menentukan suatu masalah yang tingkat kesulitannya sesuai dengan tingkat berpikir siswa, tingkat sekolah dan kelasnya serta pengetahuan dan pengalaman yang telah dimiliki siswa, sangat memerlukan kemampuan d2n ketrampilan guru.
b. Proses belajar mengajar dengan menggunakan metode mi sering memerlukan waktu yang cukup banyak dan sening terpaksa mengambil waktu pelajaran lain.
c. Mengubah kebiasaan siswa belajar dengan mendengarkan dan menerma informasi dan guru menjadi belajar dengan banyak berfikir memecahkan
permasalahan sendiri atau kelompok yang kadang-kadang memerlukan berbagai sumber belajar, merupakan kesulitan tersendiri bagi siswa.
3.1.2. Metode tanya jawab
Metode tanya jawab adalah cara penyajian pelajar&i dalam bentuk pertanyaan yang hams di jawab, terutama dan guru kepada siswa, tetapi dapat pula dan siswa kepada guru.
Beberapa kelebihan metode tanyajawab
a. Pertanyaan dapat menarik dan meniusatkan perhatian siswa, sekalipun ketika itu siswa sedang ribut, yang mengantuk kembali tegar dan hilang kantuknya.
b. Merangsang siswa untuk melatih dan mengembangkan daya pikir, termasuk daya ingat.
c. Mengembangkan keberanian dan keterampilan dalam menjawab dan mengemukakan pendapat.
Sedangkan kekurangan tanyajawab antara lain:
a. Siswa merasa takut, apalagi bila guru kurang dapat mendorong siswa untuk berani, Dengan menciptakan suasaiia yang tidak tegang, melainkan akrab.
b. Tidak mudah membuat pertanyaan yang sesuai dengan tingkat berfikir dan mudah dipahami siswa.
c. Waktu sering banyak terbuang, terutama apa bila siswa tidak dapat menjawab pertanyaan sampai dua atau tiga orang.
3.1.3. Metode latihan,
Metode latihan yang disebut juga metode training merupakan suatu cara mengajar yang baik untuk menanamkan kebiasaan-kebiasaan tertentu.
Beberapa kelebihan metode latihan
a. untuk memperoleh kecakapan motoris, seperti menulis, melafalkan huruf kata-kata atau kalimat, membuat alat-alat, menggunakan alat-alat (mesin permainan dan atletik), dan terampil menggunakan peralatan olah raga.
b. Untuk memperoleh kecakapan mental seperti dalam perkalian, menjumlah, pengurangan, pembagian, tanda-tanda (simbol), dan sebagainya.
c. Untuk memperoleh kecakapan dalam bentuk asosiasi yang di buat, seperti hubungan huruf-huruf dalam ejaan, penggunaan simbol, membaca peta dan sebagainya.
Sedangkan kelemahan metode latihan
a. Menghambat bakat dan inisiatif siswa, karena siswa lebih banyak dibawa kepada penyesuaian dan diarahkan jauh dan pengertian.
b. Menimbulkan penyesuaian secara statis kepada lingkungan.
c. Kadang-kadang latihan yang dilaksanakan secara berulang-ulang merupakan hal monoton, mudah membosankan.
3.1.4. Metode ceramah
Metode ceramah adalah metode yang boleh dikatakan metode tradisional, metode ini telah digunakan sejak dulu sebagai alat lisan komunikasi antara guru dan anak didik dalam proses belajar mengajar.
Beberapa kelebihan metode ceramah antara lain:
a. Guru mudah menguasai kelas.
b. Mudah mengorganisasikan tempat duduk/kelas
c. Dapat diikuti oleh jumlah siswa yang besar.
Sedangkan kekurangan metode ceramah antara lain:
a. Mudah menjadi verbalisme (pengertian kata-kata)
b. Bila selalu digunakan dan terlalu lama, membosankan.
Guru menyimpulkan bahwa siswa mengerti dan tertarik pada ceramahnya, ini sukar sekali.
3.2. Faktor-faktor yang Dipertimbangkan dalam Pemilihan Metode Mengajar.
Metode mengajar merupakan syarat mutlak yang harus disertakan dalam proses belajar mengajar, karena metode mengajar merupakan cara atau proses mencapai tujuan pengajaran yaitu tujuan yang diharapkan dapat dicapai oleh siswa dalam kegiatan belajar.
Setiap guru yang akan menyajikan materi pelajaran kepada anak didiknya, perlu memahami arti, peranan serta penggunaan metode mengajar, karena metode yang digunakan itu akan berpengaruh sekali terhadap berhasil tidaknya suatu tujuan yang akan dicapai tergantung pada penggunaan metode yang tepat.
Dari uraian di atas dikemukakan bahwa setiap metode memiliki karakteristik tersendiri, oleh karena itu perlu dipilih suatu atau beberapa metode yang sesuai. Jadi dalam pemilihan tersebut bukanlah salah satu metode yang digunakan secara permanen, tetapi bervariasi den metode yg tepat sehingga tercapai proses belajar mengajar yang efektif.
Faktor-faktor yang secara umum dijadikan dasar untuk memilih metode mengajar yang tepat bagi suatu proses belajar mengajar menurut E. kusmana (1985 :164-165) adalah:
1. Tujuan yang ingin dicapai.
2. Faktor siswa
3. Faktor guru.
4. Faktor dana dan fasilitas yang tersedia.
5. Faktor sifat dan materi yang hendak disajikan.
6. Faktor waktu yang tersedia bagi pelaksanaan proses belajar mengajar.
Mengenai faktor-faktor yang perlu dipertimbangkan dalam pemilihan metode mengajar adalah sebagai berikut:
1. Tujuan yang ingin dicapai.
Yang dimaksud dengan tujuan yang ingin dicapai ialah tujuan pengajaran. Tujuan pengajaran merupakan rumusan yang menggambarkan tentang perubhan tingkah laku apa yang akan diperoleh, siswa sebagai akibat dan pengajaran.
Dalam sistem pengajaran, tujuan harus dapat memberikan gambaran yang jelas tentang bentuk tingkah laku yang diharapkan dapat dimiliki siswa, karena itu tujuan harus merupakan suatu rumusan yang bersifat sempit dan spesifik. Dalam menentukan tijuan yang spesifik,harus diperhatikan tiga unsur yaitu meliputi aspek kognitif, afektif dan aspek psikomotor.
Tujuan yang jelas dan spesifik akan memberikan pegangan dan petunjuk tentang metode mengajar. Hal ini sesuai dengan fungsi metode itu sendiri yaitu cara untuk mencapai tujuan. Dengan demikian jelaslah bahwa dalam pemilihan metode mengajar yang tepat untuk mencapai tujuan haruslah memperhatikan tujuan yang telah ditetapkan.
2. faktor siswa
Siswa sebagai subjk ajar yang sangat penting dalam proses belajar mengajar, setiap siswa mempunyai keragaman masing-masing. Hal ini yang harus
diperhatikan dalam faktor siswa diantaranya usia, latar belakang, potensi-potensinya, kemampuan dan motivasi. Hal tersebut perlu dipertimbangkan dalam pemilihan metode mengajar. Disamping itu jumlah siswa yang mengikuti proses belajar mengajar juga sangat besar pengaruhnya terhadap pemilihan metode mengajar.
3. Faktor guru
Dalam proses belajar mengajar, guru mempunyai tugas mendorong, membimbing, dan memberi fasilitas belajar bagi siswa untuk mencapai keberhasilan pengajaran.
Salah satu faktor untuk mencapai keberhasilan dalam proses belajar mengajar, guru hams dapat menerapkan suatu cara untuk tercapainya tujuan tersebut. Guru di tuntut untuk dapat menggunakan berbagai metode, baik secara tunggal maupun bervariasi, dengan berpedoman dengan tujuan yang akan dicapainya.
Setiap metode mengajar mempunyai kebaikan dan kelemahannya. Suatu metode yang baik bagi seorang guru, belum tentu baik untuk guru yang lain di dalam menyampaikan suatu materi pelajaran. Untuk menghasilkai metode yang efektif maka seong guru harus dapat memahami dan mengerti kebaikan dan kelemahan dan masing-masing tersebut.
Berdasarkan kemampuan guru dalam menggunakan dan memilih metode mengajar, maka hal ini dapat menunjang tercapainnya proses belajar mengajar yang efektif.
4. Faktor sifat materi yang akan diasampaikan
Isi proses belajar mengajar akan tercermin dalam bahan yang dipelajari oleh siswa. Hal ini akan berpengaruh terhadap metode mengajar yang akan dipilih, karena dengan mengetahui sifat materi pelajaran terlebih dahulu.
Menurut E Kusmana (1979:86) karakteristik bahan pelajaran dapat dikelompokan sebagai berikut:
“Materi pelajaran dapat dikelompokkan atas mata pelajaran Vokasional yaitu mata pelajaran yang membina kecakapan tertentu yang menjabat suatu jabatan dan mata pelajarannya yang bersifat non vokasional atau mata pelajaran yang membina pengetahuan umum”.
Dengan demikian jelaslah bahwa dalam memilih metode mengajar itu, haruslah melihat karakteristik dan bahan mata pelajaran tersebut. Karena metode yang digunakan untuk menyampaikan bahan pelajaran yang bersifat vokasinal akan berbeda dengn metode yang digunakan untuk pelajaran yang bersifat non vokasional.
5. Faktor dana dan fasilitas yang tersedia
Dalam menggunakan metode mengajar tertentu, seringkali masalah dana dan fasilitas merupakan masalah yang menjadi penentu penggunaannya. Tidak jarang karena dana tidak tersedia, sesuatu metode yang yang dianggap baik untuk menyajikan suatu materi tidak dapat digunakan. Yang termasuk ke dalam faktor ini antara lain: alat peraga, alat-alat praktek, buku-buku, perpustakaan serta biaya.
6. Faktor waktu yang tersedia bagi pelaksanaan proses belajar mengajar
Salah satu hambatan yang sering dialami dalam mengajar adalah faktor waktu, karena sering kali seorang guru tidak dapat mengendalikan waktu, sehingga terjadi bahan pelajaran sudah selesai, tetapi waktu masih panjang. Atau sebaliknya, waktu sudah habis tetapi bahan belum tuntas. Hal ini membawa pengaruh terhadap proses belajar mengajar.
Oleh karena itu dalam pemilihan metode belajar mengajar, faktor waktu harus diperhatikan. Agar faktor waktu dapat diatur dengan sebaik-baiknya, diperlukan pengendalian waktu yaitu dengan menyusun jadwal dan alokasi waktu. Dalam pengajaran, alokasi waktu berpedoman dengan tujuan. Berapa banyak tujuan yang akan dicapai, serta berapa lama suatu materi dapat dipelajari siswa, seoarang guru dat membuat perincian waktu yang telah ditetapkan didalam kurikulum, sehingga proses belajar mengajar dapat sesuai dengan waktu yang di rencanakan.
3.3. Mengukur Efektivitas Belajar Mengajar
Mengukur adalah membandingkan sesuatu dengan satu ukuran. Cara mengukur efektif tidaknya belajar mengajar adalah dengan mengadakan tes, baik itu tes tulis maupun lisan. Tes lisan dilakukan pada saat kegiatan belajar mengajar berlangsung. Ditinjau dari segi kegunaan untuk mengukur kemampuan siswa, maka dibedakan atas 3 macam test yaitu:
1. Tes Diagnostik
Adalah tes yang digunakan untuk mengetahui kelemahan-kelemahan siswa sehingga berdasarkan kelemahan-kelemahan tersebut dapat dilakukan pemberian perlakuan yang tepat.
2. Tes Formatif
Digunakan untuk mengetahui apakah siswa sudah menguasai bahan program secara menyeluruh. Tes ini diberikan pada akhir setiap program.
3. Tes Sumatif
Tes yang dilakukan setiap akhir semester yang berguna untuk menentukan nilai akhir dan kegiatan belajar mengajar.
3.4. Teknik Pemiihan Metode Mengajar
faktor-faktor yang di uraiakan diatas dapat membantu dalam memlih dan menetapkan metode mengajar yang paling tepat yang akan digunakan, sehingga keberhasilan proses belajar mengajar akan terwujud.
Metode-metode yang terdapat dalam kurikulum, bukanlah suatu yang baku yang harus dilaksanakan. Oleh karena itu, disaniping melaksanakan metode-metode yang terdapat dalam kurikulum dapat dipergunakan pula metode-metode lain yang mendukung metode-metode tersebut. Guru dituntut untuk memilih dan menggunakan suatu atau beberapa metode yang dipergunakannya dalam menyajikan materi pelajaian.
Adapun alasan penulis memilih metode secara bervariasi antara lain:
a. Di lihat dan karakteristiknya, bahwa setiap metode itu mempunyai kelebihan dan kelemahannya. Untuk menekan kelemahan-kelemahannya maka sebaiknya metode itu dipadukan.
b. Dilihat dari materi yang akan disajikan, ada yang cocok dengan menggunakan metode ceramah, metode latihan dan lainnya. Atau bisa dipadukan antara satu metode dengan metode lainnya.
c. Untuk menghilangkan kebosanan atau kejenuhan dalam diri siswa.
d. Untuk menumbuhkan minat belajar siswa.
Dalam pelaksanaannya metode-metode tersebut sudah direncanakan dalam satuan pelajanan yang merupakan rencana pengajaran yang akan dilaksanakan.
BAB IV
KESIMPULAN DAN REKOMENDASI
1.1. Kesimpulan
1. Metode mengajar mempunyai fungsi yang penting di dalam mencapai tujuan pengajaran, karena tanpa metode yang efektif tujuan pengajaran tidak akan berhasil dengan balk.
2. Dalam pemilihan metode mengajar perlu mempertimbangkan beberapa faktor antara lain faktor tujuan yang ingin dicapai, faktor siswa, faktor guru, faktor materi dan faktor dana dan fasilitas.
3. Setiap metode mengajar mempunyai karakteristik tersendiri yaitu berupa kelebihan dan kekurangan. Untuk menutupi kekurangan suatu metode maka metode tersebut harus digunakan secara terpadu dengan metode lainnya. Dengan demikian dalam kegiatan belajar mengajar akan terdapat bebarapa metode yang digunakan secara padu.
4. Pemilihan metode mengajar didasarkan atas kemampuan seorang Guru dalam menggunakan metode mengajar den sesuai dengan bahan yang diajarkan.
1.2. Rekomendasi
Mengingat semua mata pelajaran lebih menekankan aspek psikomotorik, maka guru dituntut untuk menyediakan waktunya untuk memeriksa tugas dan latihan yang diberikannya. Hal ini untuk mengetahui tingkat pemahaman siswa terhadap materi pelajaran yang di berikannya.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Ahmadi,Abu. H.Drsdan Prasetya,Tri,Joko.Drs,2005, Strategi Belajar Mengajar. Bandung:Pusaka setia.
Au, Mohamad,Drs., Guru Dalm Proses Belajar Mengajar, Sinar Baru, Bandung, 1983.
Djamarah Bahri Syaiful.,Drs dan Zain Usman.,Drs. Strategi Belajar Mengajar, Banjarmasin,Rineka Cipta l995.
Hamalik,Oemar. Dr. Prof,2001, Proses Belajar Mengajar. Bandung:Balai Pustaka
Nasution,S.Prof.Dr., Proses Belajar Mergajar,Asas strategi Metode, Jurusan Pendidikan Dunia Usaha. FPIPS IKIP Bandung,1985.
Usman Uzer. Moh. Drs, 1995, Menjadi Guru Proposional. Bandung Remaja Rosda karya
Jumat, 19 Desember 2008
love
Love
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Love (disambiguation).
The stylized heart symbol is a traditional European icon representing love.
Love is any of a number of emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong affection.[1] The word love can refer to a variety of different feelings, states, and attitudes, ranging from generic pleasure ("I loved that meal") to intense interpersonal attraction ("I love my girlfriend"). This diversity of meanings, combined with the complexity of the feelings involved, makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, even compared to other emotional states.
As an abstract concept, love usually refers to a deep, ineffable feeling of tenderly caring for another person. Even this limited conception of love, however, encompasses a wealth of different feelings, from the passionate desire and intimacy of romantic love to the nonsexual emotional closeness of familial and platonic love[2] to the profound oneness or devotion of religious love.[3] Love in its various forms acts as a major facilitator of interpersonal relationships and, owing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the creative arts.
Fraternal love (Prehispanic sculpture from 250–900 A.D., of Huastec origin). Museum of Anthropology in Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico.
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Definitions
Two hands forming the outline of a heart shape.
The English word "love" can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts. Often, other languages use multiple words to express some of the different concepts that English relies mainly on "love" to encapsulate; one example is the plurality of Greek words for "love." Cultural differences in conceptualizing love thus make it doubly difficult to establish any universal definition.[4]
Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining what isn't love. As a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of like), love is commonly contrasted with hate (or neutral apathy); as a less sexual and more emotionally intimate form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted with lust; and as an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is commonly contrasted with friendship, although other definitions of the word love may be applied to close friendships in certain contexts.
When discussed in the abstract, love usually refers to interpersonal love, an experience felt by a person for another person. Love often involves caring for or identifying with a person or thing, including oneself (cf. narcissism).
In addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern conceptions of romantic love to courtly Europe during or after the Middle Ages, although the prior existence of romantic attachments is attested by ancient love poetry.[5]
Because of the complex and abstract nature of love, discourse on love is commonly reduced to a thought-terminating cliché, and there are a number of common proverbs regarding love, from Virgil's "Love conquers all" to The Beatles' "All you need is love." Bertrand Russell describes love as a condition of "absolute value," as opposed to relative value. Theologian Thomas Jay Oord said that to love is to "act intentionally, in sympathetic response to others, to promote overall well-being."
Impersonal love
A person can be said to love a country, principle, or goal if they value it greatly and are deeply committed to it. Similarly, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers' "love" of their cause may sometimes be borne not of interpersonal love, but impersonal love coupled with altruism and strong political convictions. People can also "love" material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things. If sexual passion is also involved, this condition is called paraphilia.[6]
Interpersonal love
Grandmother and grandchild,
Sri Lanka.
Interpersonal love refers to love between human beings. It is a more potent sentiment than a simple liking for another. Unrequited love refers to those feelings of love that are not reciprocated. Interpersonal love is most closely associated with interpersonal relationships. Such love might exist between family members, friends, and couples. There are also a number of psychological disorders related to love, such as erotomania.
Throughout history, philosophy and religion have done the most speculation on the phenomenon of love. In the last century, the science of psychology has written a great deal on the subject. In recent years, the sciences of evolutionary psychology, evolutionary biology, anthropology, neuroscience, and biology have added to the understanding of the nature and function of love.
Chemical basis
Main article: Love (scientific views)
Biological models of sex tend to view love as a mammalian drive, much like hunger or thirst.[7] Helen Fisher, a leading expert in the topic of love, divides the experience of love into three partly overlapping stages: lust, attraction, and attachment. Lust exposes people to others; romantic attraction encourages people to focus their energy on mating; and attachment involves tolerating the spouse long enough to rear a child into infancy.
Lust is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes mating, and involves the increased release of chemicals such as testosterone and estrogen. These effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months. Attraction is the more individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate forms. Recent studies in neuroscience have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including pheromones, dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, which act in a manner similar to amphetamines, stimulating the brain's pleasure center and leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement. Research has indicated that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years.[8]
Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships. Attachment is the bonding that promotes relationships lasting for many years and even decades. Attachment is generally based on commitments such as marriage and children, or on mutual friendship based on things like shared interests. It has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals oxytocin and vasopressin to a greater degree than short-term relationships have.[8] In 2005, Italian scientists at Pavia University found that a protein molecule known as the nerve growth factor (NGF) has high levels when people first fall in love, but these return to previous levels after one year. Specifically, four neurotrophin levels (NGF, BDNF, NT-3, and NT-4) of 58 subjects who had recently fallen in love were compared with levels in a control group who were either single or already engaged in a long-term relationship. The results showed that NGF levels were significantly higher in the subjects in love than as compared to either of the control groups.[9]
Psychological basis
Further information: Human bonding
Psychology depicts love as a cognitive and social phenomenon. Psychologist Robert Sternberg formulated a triangular theory of love and argued that love has three different components: intimacy, commitment, and passion. Intimacy is a form in which two people share confidences and various details of their personal lives, and is usually shown in friendships and romantic love affairs. Commitment, on the other hand, is the expectation that the relationship is permanent. The last and most common form of love is sexual attraction and passion. Passionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic love. All forms of love are viewed as varying combinations of these three components. American psychologist Zick Rubin seeks to define love by psychometrics. His work states that three factors constitute love: attachment, caring, and intimacy.[10][11]
Following developments in electrical theories such as Coulomb's law, which showed that positive and negative charges attract, analogs in human life were developed, such as "opposites attract." Over the last century, research on the nature of human mating has generally found this not to be true when it comes to character and personality—people tend to like people similar to themselves. However, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as immune systems, it seems that humans prefer others who are unlike themselves (e.g., with an orthogonal immune system), since this will lead to a baby that has the best of both worlds.[12] In recent years, various human bonding theories have been developed, described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities.
Some Western authorities disaggregate into two main components, the altruistic and the narcissistic. This view is represented in the works of Scott Peck, whose work in the field of applied psychology explored the definitions of love and evil. Peck maintains that love is a combination of the "concern for the spiritual growth of another," and simple narcissism.[13] In combination, love is an activity, not simply a feeling.
Sacred Love Versus Profane Love (1602–03) by Giovanni Baglione.
Comparison of scientific models
Biological models of love tend to see it as a mammalian drive, similar to hunger or thirst;[citation needed] psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. There are probably elements of truth in both views. Certainly love is influenced by hormones (such as oxytocin), neurotrophins (such as NGF), and pheromones, and how people think and behave in love is influenced by their conceptions of love. The conventional view in biology is that there are two major drives in love: sexual attraction and attachment. Attachment between adults is presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become attached to its mother. The traditional psychological view sees love as being a combination of companionate love and passionate love. Passionate love is intense longing, and is often accompanied by physiological arousal (shortness of breath, rapid heart rate); companionate love is affection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by physiological arousal.
Studies have shown that brain scans of those infatuated by love display a resemblance to those with a mental illness. Love creates activity in the same area of the brain that hunger, thirst, and drug cravings create activity in. New love, therefore, could possibly be more physical than emotional. Over time, this reaction to love mellows, and different areas of the brain are activated, primarily ones involving long-term commitments. Dr. Andrew Newberg, a neuroscientist, suggests that this reaction to love is so similar to that of drugs because without love, humanity would die out.
Cultural views
Persian
Even after all this time
The sun never says to the earth, "You owe me."
Look what happens with a Love like that!
—It lights the whole Sky. (Hafiz)
Rumi, Hafez and Sa'di are icons of the passion and love that the Persian culture and language present. The Persian word for love is eshgh, deriving from the Arabic ishq. In the Persian culture, everything is encompassed by love and all is for love, starting from loving friends and family, husbands and wives, and eventually reaching the divine love that is the ultimate goal in life. Over seven centuries ago, Sa'di wrote:
The children of Adam are limbs of one body
Having been created of one essence.
When the calamity of time afflicts one limb
The other limbs cannot remain at rest.
If you have no sympathy for the troubles of others
You are not worthy to be called by the name of "man."
Chinese and other Sinic cultures
The traditional Chinese character for love (愛) consists of a heart (middle) inside of "accept," "feel," or "perceive," which shows a graceful emotion.
In contemporary Chinese language and culture, several terms or root words are used for the concept of love:
• It was the Qing‘s emperor first word of name.
• Ai (愛) is used as a verb (e.g., Wo ai ni, "I love you") or as a noun, especially in aiqing (愛情), "love" or "romance." In mainland China since 1949, airen (愛人, originally "lover," or more literally, "love person") is the dominant word for "spouse" (with separate terms for "wife" and "husband" originally being de-emphasized); the word once had a negative connotation, which it retains among many in Taiwan.
• Lian (戀) is not generally used alone, but instead as part of such terms as "being in love" (談戀愛, tan lian'ai—also containing ai), "lover" (戀人, lianren) or "homosexuality" (同性戀, tongxinglian).
• Qing (情), commonly meaning "feeling" or "emotion," often indicates "love" in several terms. It is contained in the word aiqing (愛情); qingren (情人) is a term for "lover."
In Confucianism, lian is a virtuous benevolent love. Lian should be pursued by all human beings, and reflects a moral life. The Chinese philosopher Mozi developed the concept of ai (愛) in reaction to Confucian lian. Ai, in Mohism, is universal love towards all beings, not just towards friends or family, without regard to reciprocation. Extravagance and offensive war are inimical to ai. Although Mozi's thought was influential, the Confucian lian is how most Chinese conceive of love.
Gănqíng (感情) is the "feeling" of a relationship, vaguely similar to empathy. A person will express love by building good gănqíng, accomplished through helping or working for another and emotional attachment toward another person or anything.
Yuanfen (緣份) is a connection of bound destinies. A meaningful relationship is often conceived of as dependent strong yuanfen. It is very similar to serendipity. A similar conceptualization in English is, "They were made for each other," "fate," or "destiny."
Zaolian (Simplified: 早恋, Traditional: 早戀, pinyin: zǎoliàn), literally "early love," is a contemporary term in frequent use for romantic feelings or attachments among children or adolescents. Zaolian describes both relationships among a teenage boyfriend and girlfriend as well as the "crushes" of early adolescence or childhood. The concept essentially indicates a prevalent belief in contemporary Chinese culture, which is that, due to the demands of their studies (especially true in the highly competitive educational system of China), youth should not form romantic attachments lest their jeopardize their chances for success in the future. Reports have appeared in Chinese newspapers and other media detailing the prevalence of the phenomenon and its perceived dangers to students and the fears of parents.
Japanese
In Japanese Buddhism, ai (愛) is passionate caring love, and a fundamental desire. It can develop towards either selfishness or selflessness and enlightenment.
Amae (甘え), a Japanese word meaning "indulgent dependence," is part of the child-rearing culture of Japan. Japanese mothers are expected to hug and indulge their children, and children are expected to reward their mothers by clinging and serving. Some sociologists have suggested that Japanese social interactions in later life are modeled on the mother-child amae.
Ancient Greek
Greek distinguishes several different senses in which the word "love" is used. For example, Ancient Greek has the words philia, eros, agape, storge, and xenia. However, with Greek (as with many other languages), it has been historically difficult to separate the meanings of these words totally. At the same time, the Ancient Greek text of the Bible has examples of the verb agapo having the same meaning as phileo.
Agape (ἀγάπη agápē) means love in modern-day Greek. The term s'agapo means I love you in Greek. The word agapo is the verb I love. It generally refers to a "pure," ideal type of love, rather than the physical attraction suggested by eros. However, there are some examples of agape used to mean the same as eros. It has also been translated as "love of the soul."
Eros (ἔρως érōs) is passionate love, with sensual desire and longing. The Greek word erota means in love. Plato refined his own definition. Although eros is initially felt for a person, with contemplation it becomes an appreciation of the beauty within that person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself. Eros helps the soul recall knowledge of beauty and contributes to an understanding of spiritual truth. Lovers and philosophers are all inspired to seek truth by eros. Some translations list it as "love of the body."
Philia (φιλία philía), a dispassionate virtuous love, was a concept developed by Aristotle. It includes loyalty to friends, family, and community, and requires virtue, equality, and familiarity. Philia is motivated by practical reasons; one or both of the parties benefit from the relationship. It can also mean "love of the mind."
Storge (στοργή storgē) is natural affection, like that felt by parents for offspring.
Xenia (ξενία xenía), hospitality, was an extremely important practice in Ancient Greece. It was an almost ritualized friendship formed between a host and his guest, who could previously have been strangers. The host fed and provided quarters for the guest, who was expected to repay only with gratitude. The importance of this can be seen throughout Greek mythology—in particular, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.
Turkish (Shaman & Islamic)
In Turkish, the word "love" comes up with several meanings. A person can love a god, a person, parents, or family. But that person can "love" just one person from the opposite sex, which they call the word "aşk." Aşk is a feeling for to love, as it still is in Turkish today. The Turks used this word just for their romantic loves in a romantic or sexual sense. If a Turk says that he is in love (aşk) with somebody, it is not a love that a person can feel for his or her parents; it is just for one person, and it indicates a huge infatuation. The word is also common for Turkic languages, such as Kazakh (ғашық).
Ancient Roman (Latin)
The Latin language has several different verbs corresponding to the English word "love."
Amare is the basic word for to love, as it still is in Italian today. The Romans used it both in an affectionate sense as well as in a romantic or sexual sense. From this verb come amans—a lover, amator, "professional lover," often with the accessory notion of lechery—and amica, "girlfriend" in the English sense, often as well being applied euphemistically to a prostitute. The corresponding noun is amor, which is also used in the plural form to indicate love affairs or sexual adventures. This same root also produces amicus—"friend"—and amicitia, "friendship" (often based to mutual advantage, and corresponding sometimes more closely to "indebtedness" or "influence"). Cicero wrote a treatise called On Friendship (de Amicitia), which discusses the notion at some length. Ovid wrote a guide to dating called Ars Amatoria (The Art of Lovers), which addresses, in depth, everything from extramarital affairs to overprotective parents.
Complicating the picture somewhat, Latin sometimes uses amare where English would simply say to like. This notion, however, is much more generally expressed in Latin by placere or delectare, which are used more colloquially, the latter used frequently in the love poetry of Catullus.
Diligere often has the notion "to be affectionate for," "to esteem," and rarely if ever is used for romantic love. This word would be appropriate to describe the friendship of two men. The corresponding noun diligentia, however, has the meaning of "diligence" or "carefulness," and has little semantic overlap with the verb.
Observare is a synonym for diligere; despite the cognate with English, this verb and its corresponding noun, observantia, often denote "esteem" or "affection."
Caritas is used in Latin translations of the Christian Bible to mean "charitable love"; this meaning, however, is not found in Classical pagan Roman literature. As it arises from a conflation with a Greek word, there is no corresponding verb.
Religious views
Christian
The Christian understanding is that love comes from God. The love of man and woman—eros in Greek—and the unselfish love of others (agape), are often contrasted as "ascending" and "descending" love, respectively, but are ultimately the same thing.[14]
There are several Greek words for "love" that are regularly referred to in Christian circles.
• Agape: In the New Testament, agapē is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and unconditional. It is parental love, seen as creating goodness in the world; it is the way God is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as the kind of love that Christians aspire to have for one another.
• Phileo: Also used in the New Testament, phileo is a human response to something that is found to be delightful. Also known as "brotherly love."
• Two other words for love in the Greek language, eros (sexual love) and storge (child-to-parent love), were never used in the New Testament.
Christians believe that to Love God with all your heart, mind, and strength and Love your neighbor as yourself are the two most important things in life (the greatest commandment of the Jewish Torah, according to Jesus; cf. Gospel of Mark chapter 12, verses 28–34). Saint Augustine summarized this when he wrote "Love God, and do as thou wilt."
The Apostle Paul glorified love as the most important virtue of all. Describing love in the famous poem in 1 Corinthians, he wrote, "Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres." (1 Cor. 13:4–7, NIV)
The Apostle John wrote, "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him. Whoever believes in him is not condemned, but whoever does not believe stands condemned already because he has not believed in the name of God's one and only Son." (John 3:16–18, NIV)
John also wrote, "Dear friends, let us love one another for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God. Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love." (1 John 4:7–8, NIV)
Saint Augustine says that one must be able to decipher the difference between love and lust. Lust, according to Saint Augustine, is an overindulgence, but to love and be loved is what he has sought for his entire life. He even says, “I was in love with love.” Finally, he does fall in love and is loved back, by God. Saint Augustine says the only one who can love you truly and fully is God, because love with a human only allows for flaws such as “jealousy, suspicion, fear, anger, and contention.” According to Saint Augustine, to love God is “to attain the peace which is yours.” (Saint Augustine Confessions)
Christian theologians see God as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans and their own loving relationships. Influential Christian theologian C.S. Lewis wrote a book called The Four Loves.
Benedict XVI wrote his first encyclical on "God is love." He said that a human being, created in the image of God, who is love, is able to practice love; to give himself to God and others (agape) and by receiving and experiencing God's love in contemplation (eros). This life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as Teresa of Calcutta and the Blessed Virgin Mary and is the direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them.[14]
Buddhist
In Buddhism, Kāma is sensuous, sexual love. It is an obstacle on the path to enlightenment, since it is selfish.
Karuṇā is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others. It is complementary to wisdom and is necessary for enlightenment.
Adveṣa and maitrī are benevolent love. This love is unconditional and requires considerable self-acceptance. This is quite different from ordinary love, which is usually about attachment and sex and which rarely occurs without self-interest. Instead, in Buddhism it refers to detachment and unselfish interest in others' welfare.
The Bodhisattva ideal in Mahayana Buddhism involves the complete renunciation of oneself in order to take on the burden of a suffering world. The strongest motivation one has in order to take the path of the Bodhisattva is the idea of salvation within unselfish, altruistic love for all sentient beings.
Indic and Hindu
In Hinduism, kāma is pleasurable, sexual love, personified by the god Kamadeva. For many Hindu schools, it is the third end (artha) in life. Kamadeva is often pictured holding a bow of sugar cane and an arrow of flowers; he may ride upon a great parrot. He is usually accompanied by his consort Rati and his companion Vasanta, lord of the spring season. Stone images of Kaama and Rati can be seen on the door of the Chenna Keshava temple at Belur, in Karnataka, India. Maara is another name for kāma.
In contrast to kāma, prema—or prem—refers to elevated love. Karuna is compassion and mercy, which impels one to help reduce the suffering of others. Bhakti is a Sanskrit term, meaning "loving devotion to the supreme God." A person who practices bhakti is called a bhakta. Hindu writers, theologians, and philosophers have distinguished nine forms of bhakti, which can be found in the Bhagavatha-Purana and works by Tulsidas. The philosophical work Narada Bhakti Sutras, written by an unknown author (presumed to be Narada), distinguishes eleven forms of love.
Arabic and Islamic
In a sense, love does encompass the Islamic view of life as universal brotherhood that applies to all who hold the faith. There are no direct references stating that God is love, but amongst the 99 names of God (Allah), there is the name Al-Wadud, or "the Loving One," which is found in Surah 11:90 as well as Surah 85:14. It refers to God as being "full of loving kindness." All who hold the faith have God's love, but to what degree or effort he has pleased God depends on the individual itself.
Ishq, or divine love, is the emphasis of Sufism. Sufis believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God "looks" at itself within the dynamics of nature. Since everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices to see the beauty inside the apparently ugly. Sufism is often referred to as the religion of love. God in Sufism is referred to in three main terms, which are the Lover, Loved, and Beloved, with the last of these terms being often seen in Sufi poetry. A common viewpoint of Sufism is that through love, humankind can get back to its inherent purity and grace. The saints of Sufism are infamous for being "drunk" due to their love of God; hence, the constant reference to wine in Sufi poetry and music.
Jewish
In Hebrew, Ahava is the most commonly used term for both interpersonal love and love of God. Other related, but dissimilar, terms are Chen (grace) and Hesed, which basically combines the meaning of "affection" and "compassion" and is sometimes rendered in English as "loving-kindness."
Judaism employs a wide definition of love, both among people and between man and the Deity. Regarding the former, the Torah states, "Love your neighbor like yourself" (Leviticus 19:18). As for the latter, one is commanded to love God "with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your might" (Deuteronomy 6:5), taken by the Mishnah (a central text of the Jewish oral law) to refer to good deeds, willingness to sacrifice one's life rather than commit certain serious transgressions, willingness to sacrifice all of one's possessions, and being grateful to the Lord despite adversity (tractate Berachoth 9:5). Rabbinic literature differs as to how this love can be developed, e.g., by contemplating divine deeds or witnessing the marvels of nature.
As for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential ingredient to life: "See life with the wife you love" (Ecclesiastes 9:9). The biblical book Song of Solomon is considered a romantically phrased metaphor of love between God and his people, but in its plain reading, reads like a love song.
The 20th-century Rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler is frequently quoted as defining love from the Jewish point of view as "giving without expecting to take" (from his Michtav me-Eliyahu, Vol. 1). Romantic love per se has few echoes in Jewish literature, although the Medieval Rabbi Judah Halevi wrote romantic poetry in Arabic in his younger years (he appears to have regretted this later).
References
1. ^ Oxford Illustrated American Dictionary (1998) + Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary (2000).
2. ^ Kristeller, Paul Oskar (1980). Renaissance Thought and the Arts: Collected Essays. Princeton University. ISBN 0691020108.
3. ^ Mascaró, Juan (2003). The Bhagavad Gita. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0140449183. (J. Mascaró, translator)
4. ^ Kay, Paul. "What is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?" American Anthropologist, New Series, Volume 86, No. 1, March 1984, pp. 65–79
5. ^ Ancient Love Poetry
6. ^ DiscoveryHealth, Paraphilia, http://health.discovery.com/centers/sex/sexpedia/paraphilia.html, retrieved on 16 December 2007
7. ^ Lewis, Thomas; Amini, F., & Lannon, R. (2000). A General Theory of Love. Random House. ISBN 0375709223.
8. ^ a b Winston, Robert (2004). Human. Smithsonian Institution.
9. ^ Emanuele, E.; Polliti, P.; Bianchi, M.; Minoretti, P.; Bertona, M.; & Geroldi, D. (2005). “Raised plasma nerve growth factor levels associated with early-stage romantic love.” Abstract. Psychoneuroendocrinology, Sept. 05.
10. ^ Rub
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Love (disambiguation).
The stylized heart symbol is a traditional European icon representing love.
Love is any of a number of emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong affection.[1] The word love can refer to a variety of different feelings, states, and attitudes, ranging from generic pleasure ("I loved that meal") to intense interpersonal attraction ("I love my girlfriend"). This diversity of meanings, combined with the complexity of the feelings involved, makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, even compared to other emotional states.
As an abstract concept, love usually refers to a deep, ineffable feeling of tenderly caring for another person. Even this limited conception of love, however, encompasses a wealth of different feelings, from the passionate desire and intimacy of romantic love to the nonsexual emotional closeness of familial and platonic love[2] to the profound oneness or devotion of religious love.[3] Love in its various forms acts as a major facilitator of interpersonal relationships and, owing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the creative arts.
Fraternal love (Prehispanic sculpture from 250–900 A.D., of Huastec origin). Museum of Anthropology in Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico.
•
Definitions
Two hands forming the outline of a heart shape.
The English word "love" can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts. Often, other languages use multiple words to express some of the different concepts that English relies mainly on "love" to encapsulate; one example is the plurality of Greek words for "love." Cultural differences in conceptualizing love thus make it doubly difficult to establish any universal definition.[4]
Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining what isn't love. As a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of like), love is commonly contrasted with hate (or neutral apathy); as a less sexual and more emotionally intimate form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted with lust; and as an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is commonly contrasted with friendship, although other definitions of the word love may be applied to close friendships in certain contexts.
When discussed in the abstract, love usually refers to interpersonal love, an experience felt by a person for another person. Love often involves caring for or identifying with a person or thing, including oneself (cf. narcissism).
In addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern conceptions of romantic love to courtly Europe during or after the Middle Ages, although the prior existence of romantic attachments is attested by ancient love poetry.[5]
Because of the complex and abstract nature of love, discourse on love is commonly reduced to a thought-terminating cliché, and there are a number of common proverbs regarding love, from Virgil's "Love conquers all" to The Beatles' "All you need is love." Bertrand Russell describes love as a condition of "absolute value," as opposed to relative value. Theologian Thomas Jay Oord said that to love is to "act intentionally, in sympathetic response to others, to promote overall well-being."
Impersonal love
A person can be said to love a country, principle, or goal if they value it greatly and are deeply committed to it. Similarly, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers' "love" of their cause may sometimes be borne not of interpersonal love, but impersonal love coupled with altruism and strong political convictions. People can also "love" material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things. If sexual passion is also involved, this condition is called paraphilia.[6]
Interpersonal love
Grandmother and grandchild,
Sri Lanka.
Interpersonal love refers to love between human beings. It is a more potent sentiment than a simple liking for another. Unrequited love refers to those feelings of love that are not reciprocated. Interpersonal love is most closely associated with interpersonal relationships. Such love might exist between family members, friends, and couples. There are also a number of psychological disorders related to love, such as erotomania.
Throughout history, philosophy and religion have done the most speculation on the phenomenon of love. In the last century, the science of psychology has written a great deal on the subject. In recent years, the sciences of evolutionary psychology, evolutionary biology, anthropology, neuroscience, and biology have added to the understanding of the nature and function of love.
Chemical basis
Main article: Love (scientific views)
Biological models of sex tend to view love as a mammalian drive, much like hunger or thirst.[7] Helen Fisher, a leading expert in the topic of love, divides the experience of love into three partly overlapping stages: lust, attraction, and attachment. Lust exposes people to others; romantic attraction encourages people to focus their energy on mating; and attachment involves tolerating the spouse long enough to rear a child into infancy.
Lust is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes mating, and involves the increased release of chemicals such as testosterone and estrogen. These effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months. Attraction is the more individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate forms. Recent studies in neuroscience have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including pheromones, dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, which act in a manner similar to amphetamines, stimulating the brain's pleasure center and leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement. Research has indicated that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years.[8]
Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships. Attachment is the bonding that promotes relationships lasting for many years and even decades. Attachment is generally based on commitments such as marriage and children, or on mutual friendship based on things like shared interests. It has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals oxytocin and vasopressin to a greater degree than short-term relationships have.[8] In 2005, Italian scientists at Pavia University found that a protein molecule known as the nerve growth factor (NGF) has high levels when people first fall in love, but these return to previous levels after one year. Specifically, four neurotrophin levels (NGF, BDNF, NT-3, and NT-4) of 58 subjects who had recently fallen in love were compared with levels in a control group who were either single or already engaged in a long-term relationship. The results showed that NGF levels were significantly higher in the subjects in love than as compared to either of the control groups.[9]
Psychological basis
Further information: Human bonding
Psychology depicts love as a cognitive and social phenomenon. Psychologist Robert Sternberg formulated a triangular theory of love and argued that love has three different components: intimacy, commitment, and passion. Intimacy is a form in which two people share confidences and various details of their personal lives, and is usually shown in friendships and romantic love affairs. Commitment, on the other hand, is the expectation that the relationship is permanent. The last and most common form of love is sexual attraction and passion. Passionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic love. All forms of love are viewed as varying combinations of these three components. American psychologist Zick Rubin seeks to define love by psychometrics. His work states that three factors constitute love: attachment, caring, and intimacy.[10][11]
Following developments in electrical theories such as Coulomb's law, which showed that positive and negative charges attract, analogs in human life were developed, such as "opposites attract." Over the last century, research on the nature of human mating has generally found this not to be true when it comes to character and personality—people tend to like people similar to themselves. However, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as immune systems, it seems that humans prefer others who are unlike themselves (e.g., with an orthogonal immune system), since this will lead to a baby that has the best of both worlds.[12] In recent years, various human bonding theories have been developed, described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities.
Some Western authorities disaggregate into two main components, the altruistic and the narcissistic. This view is represented in the works of Scott Peck, whose work in the field of applied psychology explored the definitions of love and evil. Peck maintains that love is a combination of the "concern for the spiritual growth of another," and simple narcissism.[13] In combination, love is an activity, not simply a feeling.
Sacred Love Versus Profane Love (1602–03) by Giovanni Baglione.
Comparison of scientific models
Biological models of love tend to see it as a mammalian drive, similar to hunger or thirst;[citation needed] psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. There are probably elements of truth in both views. Certainly love is influenced by hormones (such as oxytocin), neurotrophins (such as NGF), and pheromones, and how people think and behave in love is influenced by their conceptions of love. The conventional view in biology is that there are two major drives in love: sexual attraction and attachment. Attachment between adults is presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become attached to its mother. The traditional psychological view sees love as being a combination of companionate love and passionate love. Passionate love is intense longing, and is often accompanied by physiological arousal (shortness of breath, rapid heart rate); companionate love is affection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by physiological arousal.
Studies have shown that brain scans of those infatuated by love display a resemblance to those with a mental illness. Love creates activity in the same area of the brain that hunger, thirst, and drug cravings create activity in. New love, therefore, could possibly be more physical than emotional. Over time, this reaction to love mellows, and different areas of the brain are activated, primarily ones involving long-term commitments. Dr. Andrew Newberg, a neuroscientist, suggests that this reaction to love is so similar to that of drugs because without love, humanity would die out.
Cultural views
Persian
Even after all this time
The sun never says to the earth, "You owe me."
Look what happens with a Love like that!
—It lights the whole Sky. (Hafiz)
Rumi, Hafez and Sa'di are icons of the passion and love that the Persian culture and language present. The Persian word for love is eshgh, deriving from the Arabic ishq. In the Persian culture, everything is encompassed by love and all is for love, starting from loving friends and family, husbands and wives, and eventually reaching the divine love that is the ultimate goal in life. Over seven centuries ago, Sa'di wrote:
The children of Adam are limbs of one body
Having been created of one essence.
When the calamity of time afflicts one limb
The other limbs cannot remain at rest.
If you have no sympathy for the troubles of others
You are not worthy to be called by the name of "man."
Chinese and other Sinic cultures
The traditional Chinese character for love (愛) consists of a heart (middle) inside of "accept," "feel," or "perceive," which shows a graceful emotion.
In contemporary Chinese language and culture, several terms or root words are used for the concept of love:
• It was the Qing‘s emperor first word of name.
• Ai (愛) is used as a verb (e.g., Wo ai ni, "I love you") or as a noun, especially in aiqing (愛情), "love" or "romance." In mainland China since 1949, airen (愛人, originally "lover," or more literally, "love person") is the dominant word for "spouse" (with separate terms for "wife" and "husband" originally being de-emphasized); the word once had a negative connotation, which it retains among many in Taiwan.
• Lian (戀) is not generally used alone, but instead as part of such terms as "being in love" (談戀愛, tan lian'ai—also containing ai), "lover" (戀人, lianren) or "homosexuality" (同性戀, tongxinglian).
• Qing (情), commonly meaning "feeling" or "emotion," often indicates "love" in several terms. It is contained in the word aiqing (愛情); qingren (情人) is a term for "lover."
In Confucianism, lian is a virtuous benevolent love. Lian should be pursued by all human beings, and reflects a moral life. The Chinese philosopher Mozi developed the concept of ai (愛) in reaction to Confucian lian. Ai, in Mohism, is universal love towards all beings, not just towards friends or family, without regard to reciprocation. Extravagance and offensive war are inimical to ai. Although Mozi's thought was influential, the Confucian lian is how most Chinese conceive of love.
Gănqíng (感情) is the "feeling" of a relationship, vaguely similar to empathy. A person will express love by building good gănqíng, accomplished through helping or working for another and emotional attachment toward another person or anything.
Yuanfen (緣份) is a connection of bound destinies. A meaningful relationship is often conceived of as dependent strong yuanfen. It is very similar to serendipity. A similar conceptualization in English is, "They were made for each other," "fate," or "destiny."
Zaolian (Simplified: 早恋, Traditional: 早戀, pinyin: zǎoliàn), literally "early love," is a contemporary term in frequent use for romantic feelings or attachments among children or adolescents. Zaolian describes both relationships among a teenage boyfriend and girlfriend as well as the "crushes" of early adolescence or childhood. The concept essentially indicates a prevalent belief in contemporary Chinese culture, which is that, due to the demands of their studies (especially true in the highly competitive educational system of China), youth should not form romantic attachments lest their jeopardize their chances for success in the future. Reports have appeared in Chinese newspapers and other media detailing the prevalence of the phenomenon and its perceived dangers to students and the fears of parents.
Japanese
In Japanese Buddhism, ai (愛) is passionate caring love, and a fundamental desire. It can develop towards either selfishness or selflessness and enlightenment.
Amae (甘え), a Japanese word meaning "indulgent dependence," is part of the child-rearing culture of Japan. Japanese mothers are expected to hug and indulge their children, and children are expected to reward their mothers by clinging and serving. Some sociologists have suggested that Japanese social interactions in later life are modeled on the mother-child amae.
Ancient Greek
Greek distinguishes several different senses in which the word "love" is used. For example, Ancient Greek has the words philia, eros, agape, storge, and xenia. However, with Greek (as with many other languages), it has been historically difficult to separate the meanings of these words totally. At the same time, the Ancient Greek text of the Bible has examples of the verb agapo having the same meaning as phileo.
Agape (ἀγάπη agápē) means love in modern-day Greek. The term s'agapo means I love you in Greek. The word agapo is the verb I love. It generally refers to a "pure," ideal type of love, rather than the physical attraction suggested by eros. However, there are some examples of agape used to mean the same as eros. It has also been translated as "love of the soul."
Eros (ἔρως érōs) is passionate love, with sensual desire and longing. The Greek word erota means in love. Plato refined his own definition. Although eros is initially felt for a person, with contemplation it becomes an appreciation of the beauty within that person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself. Eros helps the soul recall knowledge of beauty and contributes to an understanding of spiritual truth. Lovers and philosophers are all inspired to seek truth by eros. Some translations list it as "love of the body."
Philia (φιλία philía), a dispassionate virtuous love, was a concept developed by Aristotle. It includes loyalty to friends, family, and community, and requires virtue, equality, and familiarity. Philia is motivated by practical reasons; one or both of the parties benefit from the relationship. It can also mean "love of the mind."
Storge (στοργή storgē) is natural affection, like that felt by parents for offspring.
Xenia (ξενία xenía), hospitality, was an extremely important practice in Ancient Greece. It was an almost ritualized friendship formed between a host and his guest, who could previously have been strangers. The host fed and provided quarters for the guest, who was expected to repay only with gratitude. The importance of this can be seen throughout Greek mythology—in particular, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.
Turkish (Shaman & Islamic)
In Turkish, the word "love" comes up with several meanings. A person can love a god, a person, parents, or family. But that person can "love" just one person from the opposite sex, which they call the word "aşk." Aşk is a feeling for to love, as it still is in Turkish today. The Turks used this word just for their romantic loves in a romantic or sexual sense. If a Turk says that he is in love (aşk) with somebody, it is not a love that a person can feel for his or her parents; it is just for one person, and it indicates a huge infatuation. The word is also common for Turkic languages, such as Kazakh (ғашық).
Ancient Roman (Latin)
The Latin language has several different verbs corresponding to the English word "love."
Amare is the basic word for to love, as it still is in Italian today. The Romans used it both in an affectionate sense as well as in a romantic or sexual sense. From this verb come amans—a lover, amator, "professional lover," often with the accessory notion of lechery—and amica, "girlfriend" in the English sense, often as well being applied euphemistically to a prostitute. The corresponding noun is amor, which is also used in the plural form to indicate love affairs or sexual adventures. This same root also produces amicus—"friend"—and amicitia, "friendship" (often based to mutual advantage, and corresponding sometimes more closely to "indebtedness" or "influence"). Cicero wrote a treatise called On Friendship (de Amicitia), which discusses the notion at some length. Ovid wrote a guide to dating called Ars Amatoria (The Art of Lovers), which addresses, in depth, everything from extramarital affairs to overprotective parents.
Complicating the picture somewhat, Latin sometimes uses amare where English would simply say to like. This notion, however, is much more generally expressed in Latin by placere or delectare, which are used more colloquially, the latter used frequently in the love poetry of Catullus.
Diligere often has the notion "to be affectionate for," "to esteem," and rarely if ever is used for romantic love. This word would be appropriate to describe the friendship of two men. The corresponding noun diligentia, however, has the meaning of "diligence" or "carefulness," and has little semantic overlap with the verb.
Observare is a synonym for diligere; despite the cognate with English, this verb and its corresponding noun, observantia, often denote "esteem" or "affection."
Caritas is used in Latin translations of the Christian Bible to mean "charitable love"; this meaning, however, is not found in Classical pagan Roman literature. As it arises from a conflation with a Greek word, there is no corresponding verb.
Religious views
Christian
The Christian understanding is that love comes from God. The love of man and woman—eros in Greek—and the unselfish love of others (agape), are often contrasted as "ascending" and "descending" love, respectively, but are ultimately the same thing.[14]
There are several Greek words for "love" that are regularly referred to in Christian circles.
• Agape: In the New Testament, agapē is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and unconditional. It is parental love, seen as creating goodness in the world; it is the way God is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as the kind of love that Christians aspire to have for one another.
• Phileo: Also used in the New Testament, phileo is a human response to something that is found to be delightful. Also known as "brotherly love."
• Two other words for love in the Greek language, eros (sexual love) and storge (child-to-parent love), were never used in the New Testament.
Christians believe that to Love God with all your heart, mind, and strength and Love your neighbor as yourself are the two most important things in life (the greatest commandment of the Jewish Torah, according to Jesus; cf. Gospel of Mark chapter 12, verses 28–34). Saint Augustine summarized this when he wrote "Love God, and do as thou wilt."
The Apostle Paul glorified love as the most important virtue of all. Describing love in the famous poem in 1 Corinthians, he wrote, "Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres." (1 Cor. 13:4–7, NIV)
The Apostle John wrote, "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him. Whoever believes in him is not condemned, but whoever does not believe stands condemned already because he has not believed in the name of God's one and only Son." (John 3:16–18, NIV)
John also wrote, "Dear friends, let us love one another for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God. Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love." (1 John 4:7–8, NIV)
Saint Augustine says that one must be able to decipher the difference between love and lust. Lust, according to Saint Augustine, is an overindulgence, but to love and be loved is what he has sought for his entire life. He even says, “I was in love with love.” Finally, he does fall in love and is loved back, by God. Saint Augustine says the only one who can love you truly and fully is God, because love with a human only allows for flaws such as “jealousy, suspicion, fear, anger, and contention.” According to Saint Augustine, to love God is “to attain the peace which is yours.” (Saint Augustine Confessions)
Christian theologians see God as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans and their own loving relationships. Influential Christian theologian C.S. Lewis wrote a book called The Four Loves.
Benedict XVI wrote his first encyclical on "God is love." He said that a human being, created in the image of God, who is love, is able to practice love; to give himself to God and others (agape) and by receiving and experiencing God's love in contemplation (eros). This life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as Teresa of Calcutta and the Blessed Virgin Mary and is the direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them.[14]
Buddhist
In Buddhism, Kāma is sensuous, sexual love. It is an obstacle on the path to enlightenment, since it is selfish.
Karuṇā is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others. It is complementary to wisdom and is necessary for enlightenment.
Adveṣa and maitrī are benevolent love. This love is unconditional and requires considerable self-acceptance. This is quite different from ordinary love, which is usually about attachment and sex and which rarely occurs without self-interest. Instead, in Buddhism it refers to detachment and unselfish interest in others' welfare.
The Bodhisattva ideal in Mahayana Buddhism involves the complete renunciation of oneself in order to take on the burden of a suffering world. The strongest motivation one has in order to take the path of the Bodhisattva is the idea of salvation within unselfish, altruistic love for all sentient beings.
Indic and Hindu
In Hinduism, kāma is pleasurable, sexual love, personified by the god Kamadeva. For many Hindu schools, it is the third end (artha) in life. Kamadeva is often pictured holding a bow of sugar cane and an arrow of flowers; he may ride upon a great parrot. He is usually accompanied by his consort Rati and his companion Vasanta, lord of the spring season. Stone images of Kaama and Rati can be seen on the door of the Chenna Keshava temple at Belur, in Karnataka, India. Maara is another name for kāma.
In contrast to kāma, prema—or prem—refers to elevated love. Karuna is compassion and mercy, which impels one to help reduce the suffering of others. Bhakti is a Sanskrit term, meaning "loving devotion to the supreme God." A person who practices bhakti is called a bhakta. Hindu writers, theologians, and philosophers have distinguished nine forms of bhakti, which can be found in the Bhagavatha-Purana and works by Tulsidas. The philosophical work Narada Bhakti Sutras, written by an unknown author (presumed to be Narada), distinguishes eleven forms of love.
Arabic and Islamic
In a sense, love does encompass the Islamic view of life as universal brotherhood that applies to all who hold the faith. There are no direct references stating that God is love, but amongst the 99 names of God (Allah), there is the name Al-Wadud, or "the Loving One," which is found in Surah 11:90 as well as Surah 85:14. It refers to God as being "full of loving kindness." All who hold the faith have God's love, but to what degree or effort he has pleased God depends on the individual itself.
Ishq, or divine love, is the emphasis of Sufism. Sufis believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God "looks" at itself within the dynamics of nature. Since everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices to see the beauty inside the apparently ugly. Sufism is often referred to as the religion of love. God in Sufism is referred to in three main terms, which are the Lover, Loved, and Beloved, with the last of these terms being often seen in Sufi poetry. A common viewpoint of Sufism is that through love, humankind can get back to its inherent purity and grace. The saints of Sufism are infamous for being "drunk" due to their love of God; hence, the constant reference to wine in Sufi poetry and music.
Jewish
In Hebrew, Ahava is the most commonly used term for both interpersonal love and love of God. Other related, but dissimilar, terms are Chen (grace) and Hesed, which basically combines the meaning of "affection" and "compassion" and is sometimes rendered in English as "loving-kindness."
Judaism employs a wide definition of love, both among people and between man and the Deity. Regarding the former, the Torah states, "Love your neighbor like yourself" (Leviticus 19:18). As for the latter, one is commanded to love God "with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your might" (Deuteronomy 6:5), taken by the Mishnah (a central text of the Jewish oral law) to refer to good deeds, willingness to sacrifice one's life rather than commit certain serious transgressions, willingness to sacrifice all of one's possessions, and being grateful to the Lord despite adversity (tractate Berachoth 9:5). Rabbinic literature differs as to how this love can be developed, e.g., by contemplating divine deeds or witnessing the marvels of nature.
As for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential ingredient to life: "See life with the wife you love" (Ecclesiastes 9:9). The biblical book Song of Solomon is considered a romantically phrased metaphor of love between God and his people, but in its plain reading, reads like a love song.
The 20th-century Rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler is frequently quoted as defining love from the Jewish point of view as "giving without expecting to take" (from his Michtav me-Eliyahu, Vol. 1). Romantic love per se has few echoes in Jewish literature, although the Medieval Rabbi Judah Halevi wrote romantic poetry in Arabic in his younger years (he appears to have regretted this later).
References
1. ^ Oxford Illustrated American Dictionary (1998) + Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary (2000).
2. ^ Kristeller, Paul Oskar (1980). Renaissance Thought and the Arts: Collected Essays. Princeton University. ISBN 0691020108.
3. ^ Mascaró, Juan (2003). The Bhagavad Gita. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0140449183. (J. Mascaró, translator)
4. ^ Kay, Paul. "What is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?" American Anthropologist, New Series, Volume 86, No. 1, March 1984, pp. 65–79
5. ^ Ancient Love Poetry
6. ^ DiscoveryHealth, Paraphilia, http://health.discovery.com/centers/sex/sexpedia/paraphilia.html, retrieved on 16 December 2007
7. ^ Lewis, Thomas; Amini, F., & Lannon, R. (2000). A General Theory of Love. Random House. ISBN 0375709223.
8. ^ a b Winston, Robert (2004). Human. Smithsonian Institution.
9. ^ Emanuele, E.; Polliti, P.; Bianchi, M.; Minoretti, P.; Bertona, M.; & Geroldi, D. (2005). “Raised plasma nerve growth factor levels associated with early-stage romantic love.” Abstract. Psychoneuroendocrinology, Sept. 05.
10. ^ Rub
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